Numbers should be written as words in formal or literary writing. They can be written as numerals in technical or scientific material, journalism, or informal writing.

1. WRITING NUMBERS AS WORDS

II. WRITING NUMBERS AS NUMERALS

By Cindy Evers 1997

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I. SUBJECTS

Remove all the words in the compound subject except for the pronoun in question. Then choose the pronoun that agrees with the verb.

Lisa and I/me went to the concert. Try: I went to the concert. Me went to the concert.

Answer: I went to the concert.

Kris and he/him saw that movie last night. Try: He saw that movie last night. Him saw that movie last night.

Answer: He saw that movie last night.

Jenny and they/them went to the Homecoming dance. Try: They went to the Homecoming dance. Them went to the Homecoming dance.

Answer: They went to the Homecoming dance

II. OBJECTS

Remove all words in the compound object except for the pronoun in question. Then choose the pronoun that sounds correct.

The teacher asked Kandyce and I/me a question. Try: The teacher asked I a question. The teacher asked me a question.

Answer: The teacher asked Kandyce and me a question.

The room was big enough for James and he/him. Try: The room was big enough for he. The room was big enough for him.

Answer: The room was big enough for James and him.

I. STATEMENTS

Drop all words except the ones in the dependent clause. Temporarily substitute a different pronoun for who/whom.

A. Subjects

We wondered (who/whom) would preach in chapel.
Drop 'We wondered.' Substitute he/him for who/whom

He would preach in chapel. (subject) Him would preach in chapel. (object)

answer: We wondered who would preach in chapel.
(Who is a subject, so use the subjective form of who/whom)

B. Objects

We went to see the band (who/whom) we had heard about.
Drop "We went to see the band." Substitute they/them for who/whom.

We had heard about they. (subject) We had heard about them. (object)

Answer: We went to see the band whom we had heard about.
("Them" is an object, so use the objective form of who/whom)

II. QUESTIONS

Rephrase the question into a statement, then evaluate the pronoun (subject or object). Choose the corresponding case for who or whom.

Who/Whom went to the dance last night?

They went to the dance. Them went to the dance.

Answer: Who went to the dance last night?
("They" is a subject, so use the subjective form of who/whom.)

By Valerie Van Auken 1997

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Prepositions Definition
Prepositions are special words that link nouns, pronouns, or words acting as nouns to other parts of the sentence. Prepositional phrases may act as adjectives or adverbs to help clarify a sentence. These short words do not change form. Taking all this into account, prepositions may establish sequences in time, positions in space, or other relationships between ideas.

Usage
The preposition may be a better choice than adverbs or adjectives depending on your meaning. This is evident in the following example:

Instead of saying, She spoke considerately.
It might be clearer to say She spoke with careful consideration.

The meaning of the two sentences is different. The underlined word is a preposition; "with careful consideration" is the prepositional phrase. The second is a better choice because the sentence conveys the meaning intended. The writer should always keep in mind that too many prepositions might make a sentence unclear.

Placement
A preposition should be placed before its object. That is, in the phrase "with careful consideration," "with" (the preposition) is placed before "careful consideration" (consideration is the object of the preposition). This keeps these related parts of the sentence as close together as possible. This also means that ending a sentence with a preposition is taboo.

Punctuation
When beginning a sentence with a prepositional phrase, use a comma after the phrase. Do not, however, separate a prepositional phrase with a colon or semicolon.

Correct During the show, the animals all sat still.
Incorrect The purpose of this paper was for: information and persuasion.

Here again, the underlined words are prepositions.

Capitalization in Titles
The general rule when writing titles is this: if the preposition is fewer than five letters, do not capitalize it. However, if the preposition is the first or last word, or the first word after a colon, capitalize it. When documenting APA, only the first word of the title is capitalized. If there is a colon, capitalize only the first word after the colon.

Many times, a preposition is a word that can tell the position of a bird to a tree.

By Jennifer Fruend 1998

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A Southerner stopped a stranger on the Harvard campus and asked, ?Could you please tell me where the library is at??  The stranger responded, ?Educated people never end sentences with a preposition.?  The graciously polite Southerner then apologetically repeated himself:  ?Could you please tell me where the library is at, jerk.?

Can I use a preposition at the end of a sentence?

            Yes, sometimes.  The rule that prepositions can?t end a sentence is not real.  You would be hard pressed to find a recent writing handbook that included this rule.  As with all language, the key is clarity.  "If meaning, clarity, and emphasis are improved by ending a sentence with a preposition, do so."[1]  So where did this imaginary rule come from?  Basically, this fictitious restriction stems from an attempt to make English more closely resemble Latin.  Unfortunately, English is not Latin; it is very presumptuous to think that one should follow the exact same rules as the other.  But, just because this rule is not standard does not mean that it has no value.  Most formal and professional situations require this rule to be followed.  If you are unsure whether or not it is appropriate, the safe bet would be to just do it; remove that hanging preposition. 

*Formal vs. Informal:  Generally, it is considered proper to follow this rule when dealing with a formal situation.

            Formal ? Dining with the president of Harvard:  Yes, I love Faulkner, too.  I especially adore the ability with which he constructs such magnificent sentences.

            Informal ? One o?clock at George Webb?s:  These are the guys I went with.

--While both of these examples are grammatically correct, the first, while sounding snooty is more formal than the second.  

*Does it just sound better?  Say the sentence in question out loud.  If it sounds ok, and if you are in the proper situation, do it.  Leave that preposition hangin?!

Who would ever say:  The football player could not remember from where he bought his Josh Groban CD.

            It sounds much better to say:  The football player could not remember where he bought his Josh Groban CD from. 

--You are much more likely to hear the second sentence said than the first.

  *Try removing the preposition.  Sometimes, prepositions are added when they are simply not needed, making the sentence sound redundant.  For example:

            Incorrect:  Where are my keys at?

-- In this case, the preposition ?at? is grammatically incorrect because there is no object of the preposition.

Correct:  Where are my keys?

-- By simply removing the hanging preposition we have fixed this sentence.  The sentence is now clearer and no longer contains a grammatical error.   

*Is it really a preposition?  Sometimes, if you are having an extraordinarily difficult time, the problem might be due to what is called a verbal phrase.  In a verbal phrase, what looks like a preposition, is actually an adverbial particle.  What is a verbal phrase?  A verbal phrase is a phrase that ends in a preposition; but the preposition isn?t considered to be a preposition; rather, the preposition acts as an adverb.  Let me show you what I mean.  Take the verb ?break? for example.  By adding the preposition ?up? I can change the meaning of the word.  ?To break up? is not the same as ?to break.?  Here are some more examples:

?to check? vs. ?to check out? or ?to check up on?

?to look? vs. ?to look up? or ?to look out?   

?to run? vs.  ?to run over? or ?to run down?

*Can?t fix it?  Rewrite it.  If all else fails, take a minute and rewrite the entire sentence to avoid your prepositional problem all together. 

Neil Hepworth ? October 2003

[1] ?Style Guide? (Colorado Publications and Creative Services:  University of Colorado at Boulder, 2002) [website online]; available from http://www.colorado.edu/Publications/styleguide/grammar.html; Internet; accessed 23 September 2003.

-A Lot is two words, not one.
-The only allot that is one word means to distribute by lot or arbitrary shares.

Correct: I like reading books a lot.
Incorrect: I like this game alot.
Correct: I am going to allot the property.
Incorrect: I like this movie allot.

Accept---a verb meaning to take or receive
Except---usually a preposition which means excluding

Correct: Everyone was there except for you and me.
Incorrect: Please except my answer.
Correct: I accept your apology.
Incorrect: Will you please except me as a member of the club?

An easy way to remember this is?
There is an "x" in except. "x" usually means to take out (x out) or exclude.

Access---the right to enter or use
Excess---more than enough; beyond what is proper or right

Correct: I have complete backstage access.
Incorrect: I have access brownies.
Correct: I have excess drinks.
Incorrect: I have excess to the room.

An easy way to remember this is?
Excess is extreme.

Affect---usually a verb meaning to influence
Effect---usually a noun meaning result or aid
People usually know the meaning, but they confuse the spellings
An easy way to remember this is?.
Something must affect something to have an effect on it. Remember A comes before E in the alphabet.
Special effects are things. Things are nouns.

All right is always written as two words. Alright is nonstandard English.

Correct: The movie was all right.
Incorrect: The movie was alright.

Altogether---completely
All together---in a group
An easy way to remember this is?
If you can take all out and it still makes sense, you should use all together.

Example---We sing all together.
We sing together.

Its---possessive form of it
It?s---a contraction of it is
Usually writers put an apostrophe thinking that it makes its possessive, but it does not.

Correct: It?s Monday morning.
Incorrect: It?s ball is in the corner.
Correct: Its ball is in the corner.
Incorrect: Its Monday morning.

An easy way to remember this is?
If you can insert "it is" in place of "it?s" you are using the right form.

Lay--- to put down, always takes an object, past tense is laid
Lie---to recline, doesn't take an object, past tense is lay

Present Tense:
Correct: I am going to lay the book on the table.
Incorrect: I am going to lay in the sun.
Correct: I am going to lie in the sun.
Incorrect: I am going to lie the book on the table.

Usage errors occur because the present tense of lay and the past tense of lie are both lay.

Past Tense:
Correct: Yesterday I laid the book on the table.
Correct: This morning I lay in the sun.

Than---used in comparisons
Then---indication of point in time; also, next

Correct: I like red better than blue.
Incorrect: I will than go to the store.
Correct: First I will go to the store. Then I will go to the beach.
Incorrect: She is nicer then he.

An easy way to remember this is?
Than---comparisons
Then---next

Their---belonging to them
There---in or at that place
They?re---contraction formed from they are

Correct: There is no explanation for your behavior.
They?re coming!
Their behavior was inappropriate.
Incorrect: Their is the field. I hope there coming. Susan and Dan are bringing they?re bats.

An easy way to remember this is?
If you can?t replace they?re with the phrase "they are", you are using the wrong word.
For the word there, remember?places---here is in there.

Who?s---a contraction of who is
Whose---a possessive pronoun

Correct: Who?s going to the movie?
Incorrect: Who?s pencil is this?
Correct: Whose book is this?
Incorrect: Whose going on the trip?

An easy way to remember this is?
If you can use "who is" in place of who?s you are using the right word.

Sources:

Eschholz, Paul and Alfred Rosa. The Writer?s Brief Handbook. Needham Heights, Mass: Allyn and Bacon. 1999.

Freeman, Morton S. The Wordwatcher?s Guide to Good Writing and Grammar. Cincinnati: Writer?s Digest. 1990.

By Sarah Vogler 1999

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Commas: Their Uses and Misuses

But First: some terms.

Clause: having a subject and a predicate.

Independent Clause: being able to stand alone as a complete thought.

He aced his exam.

Restrictive phrase: giving essential information to the sentence.

I spoke to the woman who handles the payroll.

• The underlined phrase gives essential information about the noun so that we know
• Which woman, of the many women on earth, is indicated.

Non-restrictive phrase: giving nonessential information. It could be removed without changing the import of the sentence.

I finished my term project, which explored the role of women in the church.

• The underlined phrase does not clarify the fact that the speaker has finished a term project.

Adjective: modifying a noun.

The loud party woke me up.

Adverb: modifying a verb, adjective, adverb, or sentence.

I ran quickly so as not to be late for class.

Parenthetical expression: non-essential elements that function as asides.

Kate, however, was not thrilled to be on the team.

Commas can be used to:

Introduce sentences.

• Dependent clauses and adverb and adjective phrases preceding independent clauses are set off by a comma. 

Though he wept bitterly, his professor would not change the grade. 
Swiftly, he ran towards the ice cream truck. 
Frowning mightily, she continued to study for her exam.

• Some introductory words and phrases preceding independent clauses are set off by a comma. Those set off often include longer phrases and words that explain the sentence's relation to its context. If the comma does not indicate a significant pause or contribute to the clarity of the sentence, it may be omitted. 

Not having read the material, she could not follow the class discussion. 
Well, I finally finished that term paper. 
Moreover, this tuition increase could lead to reduced enrollment.

Enclose elements in the sentence.

• Commas set off non-restrictive adjective words or phrases from the independent clauses that surround them.

Sylvia, my friend, explained Cartesian Philosophy to me.

However, commas do not set off restrictive words or phrases. 

My friend Sylvia explained Cartesian Philosophy to me.

• Commas set off parenthetical expressions from the independent clauses that surround them. 

Dorms, unlike houses, do not have room for all of my friends to visit at once. 

If the comma does not indicate a significant pause or contribute the clarity of the sentence, it may sometimes be omitted.

• Interjections and words that explain the sentence's relation to its context are set off by commas. 

Research, however, is not my favorite pastime.

Tip: The words and phrases set off by commas in these types of sentences could be omitted without changing the meaning of the sentence

Separate certain parts of a sentence.

• A comma precedes coordinating conjunctions that separated two independent clauses. 

John had studied for the test, but Chris had spent all his time playing card games with friends.

• Commas separate items in a list of three or more parallel elements. 

Mary, Pat, and Heather played on the varsity volleyball team. 
The day was hot, humid, and cloudy.

• Adjective clauses are separated from independent clauses by a comma. 

I stood at the edge of the bluff, which was crumbling away.

Fill Miscellaneous functions.

• Commas can enhance clarity. 

In the year 2000, 1980 of our students read Jane Eyre.

• Commas can replace words. 

Jan has fifteen pages written; Pat, four.

Common Comma Mistakes:

Comma Splices occur when two independent clauses are joined by a comma and not by a coordinating conjunction. 

John had studied for the test, Chris had spent all his time playing card games with friends. 

Should be: John had studied for the test, but Chris had spent all his time playing card games with friends.

Fused Sentences occur when two independent clauses are joined but do not have a coordinating conjunction or a comma. 

John had studied for the test Chris had spent all his time playing card games with friends. 

Should be: John had studied for the test, but Chris had spent all his time playing card games with friends.

Commas should not be placed after the Coordinating Conjunction. 

John had studied for the test, but, Chris had spent all of his time playing card games with friends. 

Should be: John had studied for the test, but Chris had spent all of this time playing card games with friends.

Commas should precede coordinating conjunctions only when they link Independent Clauses. 

I stopped for a snack, and unwrapped it on my way back to my study carol. 

Should be: I stopped for a snack and unwrapped it on my way back to my study carol.

Commas should not separate the Subject and the Verb. 

Feeling tense, tired, and overworked, she and her friends, set off for their first final exam. 

Should be: Feeling tense, tired, and overworked, she and her friends set off for their first final exam.

Commas should not precede a list or follow the last item in a list. 

I like participating in extracurricular activities, such as, baseball, rock climbing, and hiking to relieve stress. 

And I like participating in extracurricular activities, such as baseball, rock climbing, and hiking, to relieve stress. 

Should both be: I like participating in extracurricular activities, such as baseball, rock climbing, and hiking to relieve stress.

Commas should not separate adverb clauses or noun clauses functioning as direct objects from the independent clause. 

I stood back from the edge of the bluff, because it was crumbling away. (adverb clause) 

Should be: I stood back from the edge of the bluff because it was crumbling away.

I saw, that the bluff was crumbling away. (noun clause as a direct object) 

Should be: I saw that the bluff was crumbling away.

Sources used in this handout:

Booher, Dianna. Good Grief, Good Grammar: The Business Person's Guide to Grammar and Usage. New York: Facts on File Publications, 1988. Hodges, John C., et al. Harbrace College Handbook. New York: Harcourt Brace College Publishers, 1998.

Iris Jastram, 2000

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Possessive Form

I.                    Singular Form: The possessive of singular nouns is formed by adding ?apostrophe ?s? regardless of the final consonant.

• Joe?s rabbit

• the boss?s desk

II.                Plural Form: The possessive of plural nouns is formed by converting the noun to its plural form, then adding and apostrophe if it ends with an ?s.?

• the band?s equipment

*Add ?apostrophe ?s? to anything that does not end in ?s."

• the oxen?s food

*If the singular noun that is claiming possession ends in ?s,? when it is plural, add ?es? and an apostrophe.

• the Joneses? house

*The plural form of hyphenated words is constructed by making the first word plural and leaving the last word in the singular form.

• sisters-in-law

If you are showing possession with a hyphenated word, construct the plural form and add ?apostrophe ?s.?

• sisters-in-law?s children

*Compound nouns are made possessive by adding ?apostrophe ?s? to the component nearest to the subject possessed.

• Ron, Trisha, and Peter?s computer? If it is Ron?s, Trisha?s, and Peter?s computers, it is clear that each person has his or her own individual computer.

III.                 Possessive Pronouns

*These include his, hers, yours, ours, theirs, and its.  These do not need an apostrophe because it is already implied that they are possessive.

• its furry, little foot?NOT? it?s furry, little foot (the latter is literally saying, ?it is furry, little foot,? which makes no sense.)

*Indefinite Pronouns (one, each other, one another, someone  else, etc.) do need to be followed by an ?apostrophe ?s.?

• one?s beliefs

IV.               Arranging for Clarity

*To be certain possessive form should be used, substitute an ?of? phrase.  If it works, possessive form is correct.

• the young girl?s diary?the diary of a young girl

*When using ?of ? phrases, make sure you choose your wording carefully.  Which of these two sentences sounds best?

• Tom is a friend of my dad?s. 

or

• Tom is one of my dad?s friends.

The second sentence wins because the first sounds awkward and does not openly declare Tom?s identity.  The second fulfills these rules.

*Do not add a sign of possession to an ?of? phrase.

• NO- A friend of mine?s dog ran away last night.

• YES - The dog of a friend of mine ran away last night.

*Do not join multiple possessives.

• NO- I have not received the school?s principal?s letter.

• YES ? I have not received the letter from the principal of the school.

*Do not assign possession to inanimate objects.

• speakers of a stereo?NOT?stereo?s speakers

*The following sentence is not clear: The diagnosis was agreed upon by his and my doctor.  The sentence implies sharing one doctor.  These are possible solutions:

• his and my doctors

• his doctor and mine

• our doctors

V.              Miscellaneous Apostrophe Fun

*Add an apostrophe to ancient, classical names ending in ?-es? or ?-is? to show possession.

• Achilles? heel

• Isis? temple

*If a word ends in ?ss? and it is singular, add an apostrophe only.  If it is plural, add ?-es.?

• witness? testimony

• witnesses? testimonies

*Do not misconstrue a descriptive form ending in ?s? as a possessive.

• news release

• savings account

*If the addition of an extra syllable would make a word difficult to pronounce, add an apostrophe only.

• Mrs. Phillips? order

*To form the singular possessive of an abbreviation, add ?apostrophe ?s.?  To form the plural, add an ?s? plus an apostrophe to the singular form.

• Dr. Z?s philosophy

• the M.D.s? stethoscopes

*Don?t underline the possessive if underscored.

• Of Mice and Men?s plot

*If a reference is made in time or measurements, which implies personification, possessive form is accepted.

• an hour?s wages

Some information in this handout was found in these sources:

Strunk Jr., William & White, E.B.  The Elements of Style.  3rd Ed.  New York: MacMillan, 1979.

Freeman, Morton.  The Wordwatcher?s Guide to Good Writing and Grammar.  Cincinatti: Writer?s Digest Books, 1990.

Sabin, William.  The Gregg Reference Manual.  7th Ed.  New York: MacMillan, 1992.

This document was assembled by Lucas Woods with the hope that, one fine day,  we may all live in harmony with apostrophes and possessive language. 2000

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Passive vs. Active Voice

Voice:

The voice of a sentence depends on whether the verb is doing the action or receiving it.

                                 PASSIVE VOICE- (receiving)

When the subject of a sentence receives the action, the verb is in the passive voice.

General reasons why you should stay away from passive voice:

• Makes the sentences boring
• Can create awkward sentences
• Overuse can cause writing to be flat and uninteresting

How to recognize a passive sentence:

            The verb phrase will always include a form of be (am, is, was, were, are, or been).

            However, the presence of a be verb doesn?t mean it is a passive sentence.

                                 ACTIVE VOICE- (doing)

When the subject of a sentence does something, the verb is in the active voice.

Reasons to change a passive sentence into an active one:

• More direct and/or forcible
• Tame sentences become more lively
• More concise (fewer words are required to express action in active voice than passive)
   

EXAMPLES

1.      Passive: Our sailboat was pushed on the rocks, where it was torn to pieces by the force of the waves.

Active: The force of the waves pushed our sailboat on the rocks and tore it to pieces.

2.      Passive: There is a book I would like you to read.
Active: I would like you to read this book.

3.      Passive: It is important to study for exams. (What is it?)
Active: Studying for exams is very important.

4.      Passive: The game was lost because the shot was missed at the buzzer.

Active: The team lost because the player missed the shot at the buzzer.

5.      Passive: Coins were thrown into the fountain by tourists.
Active: Tourists threw coins into the fountain.

6.      Passive: The flowers were cut by Joe.

Active: Joe cut the flowers.

Even though writers should strive to attain sentences with active voice rather than passive, there are EXCEPTIONS:

• Passive voice is accepted when there is a passive victim.
              Ex. Kim was hit by a car.
   

• Passive voice is accepted in science writings such as labs since it allows the writer to work around personal pronouns.
              Ex.  The bacteria were grown and observed to multiply exponentially.
  
   
• Passive voice is accepted in historical events since it helps to create an objective, fact-based paper, presenting research and conclusions without obscuring them.

Ex. The battle was lost because the men were without food.

Sources

William Strunk Jr. and E.B White. The Elements of Style 3rd Ed. MacMillan Pub. Co., Inc. New York, 1979 p. 18.

Kirszner and Mandell. The Holt Handbook. 5th Ed. Harcourt Brace College Pub. Fort Worth, TX p. 420-424.

Purdue University Online Writing Lab http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammer/g_actpass.html 1995-2002.

Amy Bernhardt 2002

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Verb Tenses Made Easy

Verb tenses are changed to indicate whether an action happened in the present, the past, or the future. There are six verb tenses used in English: three simple tenses and three perfect tenses.

                        Simple Tenses                                  Perfect Tenses

                        Present & (Present Progressive)       Present Perfect

                        Past & (Past Progressive)                 Past Perfect (also known as Pluperfect)

                        Future & (Future Progressive)          Future Perfect

The Simple Tenses

The simple tenses, including the (progressives), indicate the relationship between the time the action is taking place and the time when the sentence describing that action is being spoken or written. For example:

            Present Tense: He reads (is reading) the book.

                                     (He is reading the book at this very moment.)

            Past Tense: He read (was reading) the book.

                               (He read the book prior to this moment.)

            Future Tense: He will read (will be reading) the book.

                                   (He will read the book at some point in the future.)

Note: The present tense is sometimes used to show time/action relationships which are not simple present. For example:

            *Habitual Action

  Actions which are habitual or routine: He works in the library.

            *Historical Present

              Actions that happened in the past, but are placed in present tense in order to make them more realistic for readers and listeners: Julius Caesar leads the army.

            *Future

              Actions which indicate future time: My flight leaves this evening.

The Perfect Tenses

The perfect tenses use a specific time as a point of reference and indicate that the action was completed, or perfected, prior to that time. Note that the perfect tenses use the auxiliary (helping) verb 'to have'. For example:

            Present Perfect Tense: He has read the book.

             (He finished reading the book prior to this moment.)

            Past Perfect (Pluperfect) Tense: He had read the book by that time.

         (He finished reading the book prior to a specified time in the past.)

            Future Perfect: He will have read the book by that time.

           He will finish reading the book prior to a specified time in the future.)

Verb Tenses in Academic Writing

What verb tense should I use?

Students should use past tense whenever possible in formal academic writing. However, there are a few circumstances in which students may be required to use other tenses. One of these is a Response Paper, where students offer their personal analysis of an assigned reading. Another would be a Literature Paper, where events from the work are described in present tense to convey the idea that "the author is communicating to a present reader in the present time" (Ryan 68).

How do I know whether to use a simple or a perfect tense?

If you are describing actions which are not necessarily being completed ? actions which may be ongoing or habitual ? then you will need to use one of the simple tenses. If you are describing an action that was or will be completed at a specific time, you will need to use one of the perfect tenses.

Can I switch verb tenses?

Students should always be consistent with verb tenses, especially when distinguishing between actions which are ongoing and those which have been completed. Students writing in the historical present tense should be especially careful with verb tenses; shifting between the historical present tense and past tense when describing a specific event may cause confusion for readers or listeners.

________________________

Sources used for this handout:

Faulkner, Claude W. Writing Good Sentences: A Functional Approach to Sentence Structure, Grammar, and
Punctuation. 3rd ed. New York: Scribner's Sons, 1981.
Hodges, John C., et al. Harbrace College Handbook. 13th ed. Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace, 1998.
Ryan, Leigh. The Bedford Guide for Writing Tutors. 3rd ed. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2002.

By Amy Nordbeck, 2003

Dangling Modifiers and Misplaced Parts of Sentences

A modifier is a word that explains another word or idea in a sentence.  Sometimes modifiers are misplaced in a sentence, making the intended meaning unclear or changing it completely.  A good way to avoid dangling modifiers is to place the modifier next to the word it describes.  This may involve restructuring your sentence; however, using this practice will eliminate confusion on the part of the reader.

Single word modifier placement changes the meaning of a sentence

Example:

Part of the school group went to a movie.

                        or

The school group went to part of a movie.

The location of the word ?part? totally changes the meaning of the two sentences.

Example:

            Suzie only baked the cake.        (She didn?t mix the batter)

                        or

            Only Suzie baked the cake.       (She baked the cake by herself)

                        or

            Suzie baked only the cake.        (She didn?t bake the cookies)

Again, the placement of ?only? changes the meaning of the entire sentence. 

Misplaced phrases or words confuse a reader

Example:

Incorrect:  After a hard day at work, the mess hall was full of men.

Correct:  After a hard day at work, the men gathered in the mess hall.

Did the mess hall really have a hard day at work?  No. The men in the mess hall experienced a hard day at work.

Example:

Incorrect:  From the telephone ringing, I got a headache all day long.

Correct:   Because the phone rang all day long, I got a headache.

Here the individual speaking did not get a headache all day long.  Although he/she may have had the headache for that long period (all day), it came from the telephone ringing all day long.

Example: 

Incorrect:  Momentarily, the driver lost control of his car and struck a fire hydrant. 

Correct:  The driver momentarily lost control of his car and struck a fire hydrant.

In this example a reader will associate ?momentarily? with ?the driver? instead of with ?lost control?.  A good way to tell if you have placed a modifier in the correct place is to say the phrase in order and ask ?momentarily the driver? or ?momentarily lost control? Which phrase makes more sense?

Example:

            Incorrect:  I am so hungry, when will the pizza delivery arrive?

            Correct:  When will the pizza delivery arrive?  I am so hungry. 

In this sentence, ?I am so hungry? is a statement, not a question.  Why then is the statement behind a question mark?  The sentence would be clarified if it were broken into two complete thoughts as shown above.

Resources

John, M., Yates, P. M., & De Laney, E. N. (1955). Building Better English 10. Evanston, IL: Row, Peterson and Co.

Purdue University Online Writing Lab (2002). Dangling Modifiers. Retrieved September 24, 2002, from

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_dangmod.html

Chad Spoolhoff  2002

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Parallelism

What is Parallelism? 

• Expressing parallel thoughts in parallel structures

Why is it important? 

• To aide in understanding sentences, provide rhythm and enhance clarity

When should it be used?

• Balance like with like (Gerunds with gerunds, sentences with sentences, etc.):

Wrong:     I prefer to play, think, to be able to say, drinking whatever suits me.

Right:       I prefer to play, to think, to say, to drink whatever suites me.

Wrong:     I hoped that the ball would fly, that the catcher would catch it and that he?d strike the runner out.

Right:       I hoped that the ball would fly, that the catcher would catch, and that the runner would strike out.

?        Use introductory words to clarify meaning:

Wrong:     I don?t know what my teachers want, friends expect or I must do.

Right:       I don?t know what my teachers want, what my friends expect or what I must do.

• Be sure that items in a series have parallel structure:

Wrong:     The children loved to climb mountains, hiding in the forest, gathering wild mushrooms, and time with the fairies. 

Right:       The children loved climbing mountains, hiding in the forest, gathering in wild mushrooms, and spending time with the fairies. 

• Know and understand correlatives, such as these:

Wrong:     Both who was walking and the person they carried were obscure to me.

Right:       Both who was walking and whom they carried were obscure to me.

Wrong:     I like either skiing or to sleep, but never both. 

Right:       I like either skiing or sleeping, but never both.

Wrong:     He was running neither quickly, nor with proper technique, nor industriously.

Right:       He was running neither quickly, nor cleanly, nor industriously.

Wrong:     Not only his seeing this would change him forever but also hearing this.

Right:       Not only seeing but also hearing this would forever change him.

Wrong:     Whether he knows or she might, I still don?t know.

Right:       Whether he knows or she knows, I still don?t know.

How can we check to see if we?re using it correctly?

• Examine the paragraph for ?or? and ?and.? Check both sides to ensure that the structures on each side match.
• Read the sentence aloud; as you listen to the objects compared, look for rhythm or repetition of a sound.
• Put the objects into a column.  The sentence should remain grammatically sound, regardless of which article comes first.  For example:

The boy had many pets:      a dog

a cat

a fish

and    a gerbil.

References

Hodges, C., Horner, W.B., Webb, S.S. & Miller, R. K. (1998), Harbrace College Handbook. (13th ed). Orlando: Harcourt Brace.
Purdue University Online Writing Lab. (2003). Parallel Structure. http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g-parallel1.html

David Reher (2003)

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Quotation Marks

Direct Quotations

Use quotation marks when quoting a source directly. 

This morning I said to her, ?Take out the garbage.?

Use single quotation marks when one quote is enclosed within another.

In one of his essays, Russell Baker humorously remarks, ?I know what ?the price has been adjusted? means in New Age Babble.  It means the ?price is going up.??

Quotation marks are not used with an indirect quotation.

When I saw the professor in the hallway, I told him that I was going to be late.

Quoting Lengthy Passages of Prose and Poetry

For quoted passages of prose that exceed four typed lines, do not use quotation marks.  Begin a new line and indent ten spaces from the left margin for each line of the quotation.  This format is called block quotation.

When quoting poetry that exceeds three lines, do not use quotation marks.  Indent the lines of the poem ten spaces from the left margin of your text.  Reproduce the format of the poem as closely as possible.    

Quoting Short Sections of Poetry

Quoting poetry is similar to quoting prose; however, the lines of poetry are separated with slashes.  Include a space before and after each slash.  Always follow the capitalization of your source. 

In ?Dream Deferred? Hughes asks, ?What happens to a dream deferred? / Does it dry up / like a raisin in the sun??

Quoting Dialogue

When quoting conversations or dialogue, enclose the words of each speaker in double quotation marks.  Begin a new paragraph for each new speaker.  Capitalize the first word of the quotation.

?Are you ready to go to the store?? Tracey asked.

Rick answered, ?Not yet, maybe in a few minutes.

If the material quoted from another writer begins in the middle of the sentence, do not capitalize the first word.

On January 1, 1863, Lincoln declared the slaves ?forever free.? 

Words Used in Special Ways

Quote when using words for the purpose of irony.

My dieting father?s ?little lunch? consisted of two double bacon cheeseburgers, two orders of onion rings, and a huge banana split.

When defining a technical word for the first time, use quotation marks around the word and define it.  Do not use quotation marks for the word after it has been defined once.

?Plagiarism? ? the undocumented use of another person?s words or ideas ? can result in expulsion.  Plagiarism is a serious offense.

Words being referred to as words can either be italicized (underlined) or placed within quotation marks.  Make sure you are consistent in whichever method you choose.

            INCONSISTENT: Many people confuse ?affect? and effect.

            CONSISTENT: Many people confuse ?affect? and ?effect.?

Quotations with Periods and Commas

Periods and commas appear just before closing quotation marks.

?I really enjoyed the cupcakes,? she said.  ?I cannot wait to sample the pie.?

Quotations with Semicolons and Colons

Semicolons and colons are placed just after closing quotation marks.

Mrs. Chandler claimed, ?Many students enjoy participating in cooperative learning projects?; however, the school did not allow her to arrange these projects.

Question Marks, Exclamation Points, and Dashes

If a question mark, exclamation point, or dash is a part of the quotation, place it before the closing quotation marks.

?Did you buy her a birthday present?? he asked.

We screamed, ?Go away!? 

If a question mark, exclamation point, or dash is not part of the quotation, place it after the closing quotation marks.

Have you ever read the story ?The Three Little Pigs??

I cannot believe you have never seen the Seinfeld episode ?The Germaphobe?!

Avoid the Overuse of Quotation Marks

Writers often overuse quotation marks when they use slang or international clich?s in academic writing.  Instead, eliminate slang and clich?s and find words that are appropriate to your audience and purpose.

INCORRECT: Shelly was so hungry she could ?eat a horse.?

            CORRECT: Shelly was extremely hungry.

Do not enclose a word in quotation marks simply to emphasize it.

            INCORRECT: ?Teamwork? leads to success.

            CORRECT:  Teamwork leads to success.

Sources:

DiYanni, R. & Hoy, P.C. (2001) The Scribner Handbook for Writers. Needham Heights: Allyn and Bacon.

Troyka, L.Q. (1999) Simon & Schuster Handbook for Writers. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall.

Rachel Stalker, 2002

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Italicize, Underline, or ?Quotation Marks??
 

ITALICS

Italicize (or underline) to indicate the titles of complete works, such as books, and long works, such as long poems

Titles to Italicize

BOOKS - Pride and Prejudice

NEWSPAPERS ? the Lost Angeles Times

MAGAZINES - Newsweek

JOURNALS ? Nursing Review

PLAYS ? The Glass Menagerie

FILMS ? The Talented Mr. Ripley

ARTWORK ? van Gogh?s Starry Night

TELEVISION AND RADIO PROGRAMS ? Seinfeld

PUBLISHED SPEECHES ? King?s I Have a Dream speech

LONG POEMS ? Paradise Lost

LONG PAMPHLETS ? Dangerous Drugs

LONG MUSICAL WORKS ? Mozart?s Don Giovanni

QUOTATION MARKS

Use quotation marks to indicate the titles of parts of works, such as chapters in a book, articles in a periodical, and episodes of a television series; as well as short works such as essays, short poems, short pamphlets, and short musical compositions.

Titles to Place in Quotation Marks

MAGAZINE, JOURNAL, NEWSPAPER ARTICLES ? ?The Myth of Political

Consultants?

TELEVISION AND RADIO EPISODES ? ?Soup Nazi?

ESSAYS ? Orwell?s ?Shooting an Elephant?

SHORT STORIES ? ?Young Goodman Brown?

SHORT POEMS ? Marvel?s ?Delight in Disorder?

SHORT MUSICAL WORKS ? ?Stairway to Heaven?

EXCEPTIONS

Titles of sacred works and their parts and public documents take neither italics nor quotation marks.

The Bible                                                                        The Bill of Rights

The New Testament                                                       The U.S. Constitution

The Koran                                                                      The Magna Carta

Sources:

DiYanni, R. & Hoy, P.C. (2001) The Scribner Handbook for Writers. Needham Heights: Allyn and Bacon.

Troyka, L.Q. (1999) Simon & Schuster Handbook for Writers. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall.

Rachel Stalker, 2002

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COULD WOULD SHOULD

COULD

I would if I could, but I can?t so I won?t

1.  Expressing ability (sometimes possibility or suggestion)

    I could run that race.        (I have the ability to run it)

    I could become a mime        (It?s a possibility?I have the ability to do it)

    We could go to the circus.        (We have the ability to go?it?s a suggestion)

2.  Using the conditional (generally with an ?if? clause)

    If I try, I can break the world record.

(REAL?I have the ability to break the record and it is a very real possibility)

    If I tried, I could break the world record.

(UNREAL?I might have the ability but probably will not try to do it)

     If I had tried, I could have broken the record.

(UNREALIZED?I might have had the ability, but I did not do it)

3.  Making polite requests

    Can you help me?        More informal

    Could you help me?        More polite. 

4.  Expressing ability in the PAST

    I can eat an entire pizza right now        Present tense?REAL

(REAL?I have the ability to eat the whole pizza)

    Last week I could eat two pizzas.        Past tense?REAL

(REAL?Last week I had the ability to eat two pizzas)

    Last week I could have eaten two pizzas.        Past tense?UNREALIZED

(UNREALIZED?Last week I might have had the ability, but I did not really eat them) 

***Watch out!  ?Could?ve? is NOT ?could of? but ?could have.?***

WOULD

I would if I could, but I can?t so I won?t

1.  Expressing willingness (but often inability as well) or desire

        I would help you.        (I am willing to help, but I can?t.)

        I would like a cup of tea.        (I want a cup of tea?but more polite.)

2.  Using the conditional (generally with an ?if? clause)

    If I go to Ann?s house, I will eat spaghetti and meatballs. 

(REAL?I have the ability to go there and to eat the spaghetti.)

    If I went to Ann?s house, I would eat spaghetti and meatballs.

(UNREAL?I might have the ability, but I probably will not actually go to Ann?s and, therefore, will not eat the spaghetti.)

    If I had gone to Ann?s house, I would have eaten spaghetti and meatballs.

(UNREALIZED?I might have had the ability to go there and eat spaghetti, but I neither went to Ann?s nor ate the spaghetti.)

3.  Making polite requests

    Would you like to go to dinner?        (Do you want to go?  AND Will you go?)      

    Would you help me?        Can you help me?  AND Will you?)

4.  Indicating the PAST

    When I was a kid, I played in the sandbox.     

(At a specific time [my childhood] I played there)

    When I was a kid, I would play in the sandbox. 

(At unspecific times [throughout my childhood], I would play there.  Expresses an habitual action?something done somewhat regularly during a certain period of time.)

***Watch out!  ?Would?ve? is NOT ?would of? but ?would have.?***

SHOULD

Everything should be made as simple as possible but not simpler.

-Einstein

1.  Expressing advisability

    ?Should? implies, ?This is a good idea.  This is good advice.?

    I should study harder for the exam. 

(This is good advice.  Maybe I will study harder, maybe I won?t?but is a good idea to do so.)

    You should not eat rotten eggs. 

(This is good advice.  It will be bad if you eat them.  It is a good idea not to eat them.)

    I should have studied harder for the exam. 

(I did not study hard enough for the exam.  The result was bad.  It would have been a good idea to study harder.)

    You should not have eaten rotten eggs.

(You ate rotten eggs.  The result was bad.  It would have been a good idea not to eat them.)

2.  Expressing expectation

    In this case, ?should? means ?will probably.?

    The pie that Mom is making should be good. 

(I expect [probably with good reason] that the pie will be good.)

    It should not be a problem if you are late. 

(I expect [probably with good reason] that you being late won?t be a problem.)

    We should have heard from her by now.

(We expected to hear from her, but we have not yet.)

***Watch out!  ?Should?ve? is NOT ?should of? but ?should have.?***

Schrampfer Azar, B.  (1981). Understanding and using English grammar. Englewood, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Feigenbaum, I. (1985).  The grammar handbook.  Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Katy Winandy, 2005

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THAT, WHICH, WHO

TERMS 

Restrictive (Essential) clauses give essential information to the sentence.

Example

I visited the agency that deals in real estate.

The underlined clause tells what type of agency is being visited.

Non-restrictive (Nonessential) clauses give nonessential information.  The clause could be removed from the sentence without changing the meaning.

Example

I completed my investigative report, which explored the aspects of the Jewish wedding ceremony.

This clause could be removed because it does not clarify the fact that the investigative report has been completed.

THAT

That is most commonly used to refer to non-specific people in restrictive clauses.

Awkward Example

My boss that was hired by the agency has experience selling real estate.

The person in the sentence is one specific woman, not any person.

Better Example

The agency is looking for someone that has experience in selling real estate.

That can also be used to refer to objects.           

Example

The ball that hit me came from right field.   

WHICH

Which is commonly used to refer to objects in non-restrictive clauses.

Awkward Example

The agent, which joined the company last month, fought for equality in the workplace.

Better Example

The agency, which was founded in 1982, was intended to ensure equal representation of minorities in the workplace.

Awkward Example

The baseball team trainer, which joined last month, helps bring revenue to the city.

Better Example

The baseball team, which is privately trained, brings revenue to the city.

Which can also be used for restrictive clauses.  This is often determined by punctuation, or the lack thereof.  This use is less common, often that is used instead.

Restrictive Example

The proposal which interested investors was the most reasonable.

Non-Restrictive Example

The team?s proposal, which interested the investors, was quite reasonable.

WHO

Who is used in both restrictive and non-restrictive clauses to refer to a person, usually to increase clarity.

Awkward Restrictive Example

The woman that was hired is now my boss.

Better Restrictive Example

The woman who was hired is now my boss.

Awkward Non-Restrictive Example

The agents, which represented all minorities in the city, met at the convention center.

Better Non-Restrictive Example

The agents, who represented all minorities in the city, met at the convention center.

• Glenn, C., Gray, L., Miller, R.K., Webb, S.S. (2004). The Writers Harbrace Handbook (2nd ed.).  Boston: Thomson-Wadsworth. p.793 
• Friend, C., Hairston, M., Ruszkiewicz, J. (2004). The Scott Foresman Handbook for Writers (7th ed.).  Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.  p. 523

Patrick Zeuschner, 2005

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RUN-OOOON SENTENCES AND SENTENCE TRAG MEN TS

Run-ons????????????????

Run-ons (sometimes called fused sentences) are ungrammatical sentences in which two or more independent clauses are joined without a conjunction. This simple error can be corrected by inserting a semicolon or a period. It can also be corrected by making one clause dependent, or by using a comma and a conjunction.

Examples:

Incorrect: They like to see him step up to bat he looks larger than life.

Correct: They like to see him step up to bat. He looks larger than life.

Correct: They like to see him step up to bat, because he looks larger than life.

Incorrect: Nowadays he takes an interest in the community moreover he gives money to sick children.

Correct: Nowadays he takes an interest in the community; moreover, he gives money to sick children.

Correct: Nowadays he takes an interest in the community, so he gives money to sick children.

Fragments??????????????

A sentence fragment is an incomplete structure punctuated as a complete sentence. It lacks the necessary independent clause. A good way to tell if the sentence is a fragment is to say it out loud; if it sounds incomplete, then it probably is.

Examples:  

Incorrect: And not only survives but also multiplies.

Correct: The amoeba divides itself, and not only survives but also multiplies.

Incorrect: Because they never stop growing.

Correct: Because they never stop growing, trees can reach great heights.

In a few special instances, fragments ARE allowed.

Dialogue: "Sleep," thought Dhebby. "Sleep."

Deliberate stylistic effects: The play catches everyone and everything in a swirl. Rather like a tornado.

Questions and answers: When? Only seven days from now.

Interjections: Oh! Well.

Advertising: The best roof for your home.

Idioms: So much for that! The sooner the better.

Hannah C. Wieting, 2004 

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VERBALS

A gerund is formed by taking a verb and adding ?ing. It functions as a noun.

Examples:

write + ing = writing

jump + ing = jumping

go    +  ing = going

Gerunds occupy the same positions in a sentence that a noun normally would, for example: subject, direct object, subject complement, and object of preposition.

Gerund as Subject:

Swimming is fun but not in Lake Michigan in January.

Writing can be difficult in English.

Gerunds as object of preposition:

CORRECT:

The professor was not happy with him for skipping class.

I will eat before going to the store.

**If you want to use a verb after a preposition, it must be a gerund.

INCORRECT:

The professor was not happy with him for skip class.

I will eat before go to the store.

Gerund as subject compliment:

My favorite activity lately is sleeping.

His hobby is running. 

***In this case the gerund needs to be paired with a linking verb. A gerund is typically paired with the linking verbs TO BE.  Here is a list of other verbs that gerunds may follow:

admit, appreciate, avoid, carry on, consider, defer, delay, deny, detest, dislike, endure, enjoy, escape, excuse, face, feel like, finish, forgive, give up, can't help, imagine, involve, leave off, mention, mind, miss, postpone, practice, put off, report, resent, risk, can't stand, suggest, understand

Gerund as direct object:

My roommate does not appreciate my smoking.

My roommate likes my sleeping.

Gerund Phrases:

They consist of a gerund plus modifiers, object(s), and/or complements.

Sleeping in a warm and fluffy bed is very comfortable.

Opening the door slowly is the key to not waking up the baby.

Participles can be one of two types:

1. Present ? formed by adding an ?ing
2. Past ? formed by adding ?ed, -en, -d, -t, or ?n

Participles function as adjectives and modify nouns and pronouns.

Examples:    The panting dog stopped chasing the car.

                   The smiling baby fell asleep.

                   The burnt log was next to the tent.

                   Startled, she dropped the vase in her hands.

Participial Phrases:

They consist of a participle plus modifier(s), object(s), and/or complement(s).

Participial phrases are set off with commas when they

1. come at the beginning of a sentence
2. interrupt a sentence as a nonessential element
3. come at the end of a sentence and are separated from the word they modify

They should be as close to the noun that they modify as possible.

The noun that a participle phrase modifies must be in the sentence

Examples:    Having been a doctor, he knew what to do about the injury.

                   Removing her shoes, Sarah sat down on her bed.

                   Christy saw her boyfriend drinking her soda.

Sande Zacek, 2004

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Minor Punctuation Marks                                                            

Semicolons [;]   

??with a semicolon you get a pleasant little feeling of expectancy; there is more to come; read on; it will

get clearer.?

-Lewis Thomas

* Semicolons are used to separate a ?monster? list containing commas.

             I have friends from Milwaukee, Wisconsin; Fort Wayne, Indiana; New York,

New York; and Detroit, Michigan.

* Semicolons separate closely related independent clauses. An independent clause is a complete thought which contains a subject and a verb and can stand on its own.

 I like to play many sports; volleyball is my favorite sport and the most enjoyable.

* Semicolons are also used with conjunctive adverbs (however, moreover, nevertheless, consequently, as a result) to join two independent clauses.

 Bill Monroe is deceased; however, he is still the father of Bluegrass.

 The fire alarm is going off; therefore, a building is on fire.

Colons [:]

?Think of the colon as a gate, inviting one to go on.?

- Anonymous

* Colons are used to list. (A complete sentence must be used before the colon.)

Incorrect The list is: coffee, eggs, bacon, sugar, and milk.

Correct The following items were added to the list: coffee, eggs, bacon, sugar, and milk.

* They explain or fulfill.

There is only one thing left to do now:  present the information.

* Colons separate an independent clause from a quotation.

 Melissa often referred back to her favorite quotation from her mom: ?Eat all your food on your plate.?

* A colon is used after a salutation in a business letter.

 Dear Senator Rice:

It has come to our attention?

* To designate a speaker in a play or in a court testimony

             Dave: The flower bloomed in the spring.

            Mary: And it withered in the fall.

Dashes [--]

?The dash is a handy device, informal and essentially playful, telling you that you?re about to take off on a different tack but still in some way connected with the present course?only you have to remember that the dash is there, and either put a second dash at the end of the notion to let the reader know that he?s back on course, or else end the sentence, as here, with a period.?

- Lewis Thomas

* A dash is used to set off parenthetical elements for emphasis or (if it contains commas) for clarity.

             All three of them?Bob, Jenny, and Mary?enjoy basketball.

             The trail down the Grande Canyon?steep, narrow, winding, and lacking guard rails?is treacherous.

* They mark sudden breaks in thought, abrupt change in tone.

             I know who she is, Mrs.?Mrs.?Mrs.?somebody?the mayor of Gilpin?or Springtown.

* A dash occurs after an introductory list or series.

             Eager, determined to succeed, and scared to death?all of these describe my emotions the first day on the job.

***Reminders***

* Do not use dashes to set apart material when commas would do the work.

* There are no spaces between the dash and the letters on either side of it.

* To achieve the dash I used above, you will have to type two hyphens; the appropriate dash will then appear as you continue typing.

Parentheses [()]

* To include material in a sentence that is not very important or wouldn?t normally fit into the flow of the sentence.

             Thirty-five years after his death, Robert Frost (not related to Frosty the snow man) remains America?s favorite poet.

* If the material in the parentheses appears within a sentence and is an incomplete sentence, do not use a capital letter or period to punctuate it; a question mark or exclamation mark may be more appropriate.

 Thirty-five years after his death, Robert Frost (know him?) remains America?s favorite poet.

* If the material in the parentheses is a separate sentence, punctuate is as one.

             Thirty-five years after his death, Robert Frost remains America?s favorite poet. (We remember him at Kennedy?s inauguration.)

Ashlee Davis, 2004

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The Dreaded Comma Splice

Comma Splice: two independent clauses are connected by a just a comma.

Clause: A group of words that contains a subject and a verb.

Independent Clause: A group of words that has a subject and a verb and can stand alone as a sentence.    
  Example: She scrubbed the floor.

Dependent Clause: A group of words that has a subject and a verb but cannot stand alone.

  Example: After she scrubbed the floor?

Coordinating Conjunction: a word that links independent clauses together.

  Examples: and, but, for, nor, or, yet.
  Note:  Transitional words and phrases such as therefore, however, consequently, thus,
 in fact, and for example are not conjunctions.  You must use a semi-colon before them.

Subordinating Conjunction: a word that introduces a dependent clause.
 Examples: because, after, although, when, until, before, while, since.

Relative Pronoun: a pronoun that introduces a dependent clause.
 Examples: who, which, that, whom, whose, whoever, whomever, whatever, whichever.
 
WAYS TO FIX A COMMA SPLICE
----Place a comma after the first clause and a coordinating conjunction after the comma.
COMMA SPLICE: The lightning flashed, it made the dogs bark.
CORRECT: The lightning flashed, and it made the dogs bark.

----Use a semi-colon instead of a comma.
COMMA SPLICE: The snow is falling, my face is turning pink.
CORRECT: The snow is falling; my face is turning pink.
COMMA SPLICE: We had eight inches of snow with a strong wind, therefore, school has been called off.
CORRECT: We had eight inches of snow with a strong wind; therefore, school has been called off.

----Make the sentence into two sentences by putting a period after one independent clause. COMMA SPLICE: We are watching a movie now, later we will go to a party.
CORRECT: We are watching a movie now. Later, we will go to a party.

----Change one independent clause in a sentence to a dependent clause by using a subordinating conjunction or relative pronoun.
COMMA SPLICE: He took the scarf, he needed to keep warm on a ski trip.
CORRECT: He took the scarf, because he needed to keep warm on a ski trip.
COMMA SPLICE: He took the scarf, the scarf does not belong to him.
CORRECT: He took the scarf which does not belong to him.

Sources
Aaron, Jane.  The Little Brown Compact Handbook.  New York: Harper Collins, 1995.
Gordon, Karen.  The Transitive Vampire.  New York: Times Books, 1984.
Troyka, Lynn.  Simon and Schuster Handbook for Writers. Saddle River: Prentice Hall, 1999.
    
By Andrea Schiffner  2002.

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